Literature Review
Freedom and Obedience in Western Education
Miguel Martin-Sanchez and Cruz Flores-Rodriguez
This article examines Western education’s structural features that foster obedience over critical thought and democracy. It uses social conformity theory to show how educational rigidity and classroom organization promote conformity rather than individual freedom. The authors reference Erich Formm’s work to explain how conformity, though initially a means of social integration, can suppress individuality. They also explore the concept of “contaminated vicarious learning” where behaviours modeled by adults influence students’ actions, inhibiting the development of critical thinking. Furthermore, the text connects this education system to the demands of neoliberalism and capitalism, where citizens’ obedience guarantees economic benefits, at the expense of true liberty. They conclude by considering how schools can resist the urge to promote obedience at the expense of a democratic culture, and of critical thinking.
The Democratic Classroom: Mistake or Misnomer
Mary Anne Raywid
In The Democratic Classroom: Mistake or Misnomer (2009), Mary Anne Raywid explores the concept of democracy in education, questioning whether truly democratic classrooms are possible or whether the term is miapplied. She argues that while democracy in education is an ideal, many schools fail to implement it meaningfully. She examines the challenges of creating democratic learning environments, such as power imbalances between teachers and students, narrow curricula, and standardized testing. She emphasizes that democratic classrooms should encourage student voice, shared decision-making, and respect for diverse perspectives. She urges educators to consider whether their classrooms truly uphold democratic principles.
Documentation and Democratic Education
Beverly Falk and Linda Darling-Hammond
In Documentation and Democratic Education (2009), Beverly Falk and Linda Darling-Hammond explore the role of documentation in fostering democratic education. They argue that documenting student learning through observations, portfolios, and student reflections helps create a more inclusive educational environment. This process allows students to have a voice in their learning, encourages critical thinking, and promotes collaboration between teachers, students, and families. The article outlines four ways that documentation supports democratic principles: by fostering an inquiry approach, by enhancing professional learning, by deepening learning for learners from their work (assessment as learning), and by offering more assessment methods (differentiation). Documentation interweaves learning between students and teachers, allowing reciprocal learning and a deeper understanding of students learning trajectory. The authors advocate for assessment methods that empower students rather than simply rank them.
Authoritative Classroom Management: How Control and Nurturance Work Together
Joan M.T. Walker
In Authoritative Classroom Management: How Control and Nurturance Work Together, Joan M. T. Walker explores the idea of authoritative classroom management, by comparing parenting styles with teaching. She suggests that similar to effective parenting, a balance of control and nurturance is best suited to meet social and academic needs. She argues applying this parenting style theory to classrooms can enhance the understanding of teacher influence and promote improvements in schools. There are three parenting styles that can be applied to teaching: authoritative, authoritarian, and submissive. These three styles use a different balance of control and nurturance with children. She argues that authoritarian styles emphasize too much control, stifling students critical thinking abilities. Students with authoritarian teachers tend to perform well academically, but lack emotional regulation and social skills. Submissive styles emphasize too much nurturance and not enough control. Students with submissive teachers tend to have smaller academic gains due to the lack of control and consistency in their classroom. Walker argues that an authoritative teaching style, that balances control and nurturance is the most effective for developing students academic, critical thinking, and social skills. Students with authoritative teachers are confident, engaged, and have high academic trajectory throughout the year. The author advocates for authoritative teaching styles that demand consistent expectations coupled with positive nurturance to enhance self-management.
A Situated Lens to Designing Assessments of Citizenship Competency
Paula J. Waatainen and Man-Wai Chu
In A Situated Lens to Designing Assessments of Citizenship Competency Paula Waatainen and Man-Wai Chu discuss a design-based research study that was used to assess grade 6 and 7 students. The students were placed in a real world city planning consultation process called Reimagine Nanaimo, to assess their ability to contribute to democratic deliberation. The study shows how there is more emphasis placed on learning activities than there is on assessments and addresses how time constraints and standardized testing limit a teacher’s ability to involve students in active citizenship programs. The research explored how to design assessments that measure students' competencies for real-world civic discussions.
The study employed a framework based on literature about competency, citizenship, and situated learning, following a three-stage process: analysis, design, and evaluation. Key findings of this study show the importance of prioritization and deliberation skills, which are not skills specifically mentioned in the curriculum but are vital for civic action. The article concludes that using a situated lens (where students apply their knowledge to real world situations), students can help teachers to integrate citizenship skills in their classroom practices while also making these skills more relevant and central to student learning.
Authority or Democracy? Integrating Two Perspectives on Equitable Classroom Management in Urban Schools
Eliot J. Graham
Graham brings our themes of obedience and democracy into conversation with one another by examining how the tension between teacher authority and democratic classrooms can be reconciled. At first glance, these two concepts may seem contradictory, as authority is often associated with control and hierarchy, whereas democracy emphasizes shared decision-making and student voice. However, Graham (2018) challenges this binary perspective, arguing that authority and democracy should instead be viewed as “two sides of the same coin” (p. 493). In other words, rather than assuming that one must come at the expense of the other, it is crucial to recognize that authority and democracy frequently function in tandem within educational settings. Teachers can maintain structure and guidance while also fostering an environment where students actively participate in their learning and engage in meaningful discussions. By embracing this dual perspective, we can better understand the complex relationship between these ideas and create classrooms that are both structured and democratic.